Introduction to Sensors for Ranging and Imaging

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Introduction to Sensors for Ranging and Imaging
Graham M. Brooker
Hardcover, 740 pages
ISBN: 9781891121746
Publisher: SciTech Publishing, Copyright 2009

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Review
As one who has taught a graduate-level sensors course for the last seven years, I am aware of the dearth of books that cover the three essential domains (RF, optical, and acoustic) in one volume. The good news is that my search is over. The bad news is that now I have to revise my course materials because this book is too good not to use...this book is appropriate for a senior-level or first-year graduate course in a program such as systems engineering where a solid overview of sensor systems is needed. It is also an excellent reference for anyone with a technical background looking for an introduction to sensor systems...it can be followed by someone without an engineering mathematics background such as a computer scientist looking to become familiar with the sensor domain." - Mike Green, Department of Systems Engineering, Naval Postgraduate School

Description
This is a comprehensive textbook and reference that provides a solid background in active sensing technology. Beginning with a historical overview and an introductory section on signal generation, filtering and modulation, it follows with a section on radiometry (infrared and microwave) as a background to the active sensing process. The core of the book is concerned with active sensing, starting with the basics of time-of-flight sensors (operational principles, components), and goes through the derivation of the radar range equation, and the detection of echo signals, both fundamental to the understanding of radar, sonar and lidar imaging. Several chapters cover signal propagation of both electromagnetic and acoustic energy, target characteristics, stealth and clutter. The remainder of the book involves the basics of the range measurement process, active imaging with an emphasis on noise and linear frequency modulation techniques, Doppler processing,and target tracking.

KEY FEATURES
• Extensive use of worked examples based on sensors that the author has developed or worked on during the past 28 years.
• Examples are featured that illustrate the process of designing a sensor for a particular application, ranging from such diverse topics as the design of a ship-borne fire control radar to a UAV based lidar scanner to detect locust swarms.
• For a broader appeal, complicated mathematical derivations are avoided unless absolutely necessary, and electronic details of the sensors are limited to block diagram and algorithm level.
• There are 572 figures of which about 20% are photographs, the remainder drawings with 25 tables.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction to Sensing

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 Active Sensors
1.1.2 Passive Sensors

1.2 A Brief History of Sensing

1.2.1 Sonar
1.2.2 Radar
1.2.3 Lidar

1.3 Passive Infrared Sensing
1.4 Sensor Systems
1.5 Frequency Band Allocations for the Electromagnetic Spectrum
1.6 Frequency Band Allocations for the Acoustic Spectrum
1.7 References

Chapter 2 Signal Processing and Modulation

2.1 The Nature of Electronic Signals

2.1.1 Static and Quasi-Static Signals
2.1.2 Periodic and Repetitive Signals
2.1.3 Transient and Quasi Transient Signals

2.2 Noise

2.2.1 Thermal Noise

2.2.1.1 Noise Power Spectrum for Thermal Noise

2.2.2 Shot Noise

2.2.2.1 Noise Power Spectrum for Shot Noise

2.2.3 1/f Noise
2.2.4 Avalanche Noise

2.3 Signals
2.4 Signals and Noise in the Frequency Domain

2.4.1 The Fourier Series

2.5 Sampled Signals

2.5.1 Generating Signals in MATLAB
2.5.2 Aliasing

2.6 Filtering

2.6.1 Filter Categories

2.6.1.1 Butterworth
2.6.1.2 Chebyshev
2.6.1.3 Bessel
2.6.1.4 Elliptic

2.6.2 Filter Roll-off
2.6.3 The Ear as a Filter Bank

2.7 Analog Modulation and Demodulation

2.7.1 Amplitude Modulation

2.8 Frequency Modulation (FM)
2.9 Linear Frequency Modulation
2.10 Pulse Coded Modulation Techniques

2.10.1 Pulse Amplitude Modulation
2.10.2 Frequency Shift Keying
2.10.3 Phase Shift Keying
2.10.4 Stepped Frequency Modulation

2.11 Convolution

2.11.1 Linear Time Invariant Systems
2.11.2 The Convolution Sum
2.11.3 Worked Example: Pulsed Radar Echo Amplitude

2.12 References

Chapter 3 IR Radiometers & Image Intensifiers

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Thermal Emission

3.2.1 Blackbody Radiation
3.2.2 The Planck Function
3.2.3 Properties of the Planck Function
3.2.4 Confirmation of Stefan-Boltzmann and Rayleigh-Jean Laws

3.3 Emissivity and Reflectivity

3.3.1 Worked Example: Black Body Radiation from Human Body

3.4 Detecting Thermal Radiation

3.4.1 External Photoeffect
3.4.2 Internal Photoeffect

3.5 Heating

3.5.1 Bolometers
3.5.2 Pyroelectric Sensors
3.5.3 Thermopiles

3.6 Performance Criteria for Detectors

3.6.1 Responsivity
3.6.2 Noise Equivalent Power (NEP)
3.6.3 Detectivity and Specific Detectivity

3.7 Noise Processes and Effects
3.8 Applications

3.8.1 Passive Ultraviolet Sensor (External Photoeffect)
3.8.2 Radiation Thermometer (Internal Photoeffect: Thermopile)
3.8.3 Passive Infrared Sensor (Internal Photoeffect: Pyroelectric)
3.8.4 Crookes Radiometer

3.9 Introduction to Thermal Imaging Systems

3.9.1 Scattering and Absorption
3.9.2 Scanning Mechanisms and Arrays
3.9.3 Micro-bolometer Arrays
3.9.4 Key Optical Parameters

3.10 Performance Measures for Infrared Imagers

3.10.1 Detector Field of View
3.10.2 Spatial Frequency
3.10.3 Signal to Noise Ratio for a Point Target
3.10.4 Worked Example: IRST System SNR
3.10.5 Signal to Noise Ratio for a Target in Ground Clutter
3.10.6 Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference (NETD)
3.10.7 Example
3.10.8 The Minimum Resolvable Temperature Difference (MRTD)

3.11 Target Detection and Recognition

3.11.1 Example of FLIR Detection

3.12 Thermal Imaging Applications
3.13 Image Intensifiers

3.13.1 First Generation Tubes
3.13.2 Second Generation Tubes
3.13.3 Limitations of Microchannel Plates
3.13.4 Third Generation Tubes
3.13.5 Spectral Characteristics of the Scene
3.13.6 Time Gating Microchannel Plates

3.14 References

Chapter 4 Millimeter Wave Radiometers

4.1 Antenna Power Temperature Correspondence

4.1.1 Example of Power Received from a Blackbody

4.2 Brightness Temperature
4.3 Apparent Temperature
4.4 Atmospheric Effects

4.4.1 Attenuation
4.4.2 Downwelling Radiation
4.4.3 Upwelling Radiation

4.5 Terrain Brightness
4.6 Worked Example: Space-based Radiometer

4.6.1 Temperature Contrast

4.7 Antenna Considerations

4.7.1 Beamwidth
4.7.2 Efficiency
4.7.3 Fill Ratio

4.8 Receiver Considerations

4.8.1 Mixer Implementations for Microwave Receivers

4.8.1.1 Mixer Specifications

4.8.2 Noise Figure

4.9 The System Noise Temperature
4.10 Radiometer Temperature Sensitivity
4.11 Radiometer Implementation

4.11.1 Total Power Radiometer
4.11.2 Dicke Radiometer
4.11.3 Performance Comparison between Radiometer Types

4.12 Intermediate Frequency and Video Gain Requirements
4.13 Worked Example: Anti Tank Submunition Sensor Design

4.13.1 Radiometer Implementation
4.13.2 Receiver Noise Temperature
4.13.3 Minimum Detectable Temperature Difference

4.14 Radiometric Imaging

4.14.1 Image Processing

4.15 Applications

4.15.1 Airborne Scanned Millimeter Wave Radiometer
4.15.2 Scanning Multi-channel Microwave Radiometer (SMMR)
4.15.3 Ground Based Millimeter Wave Radiometers

4.15.3.1 Low Visibility Imaging
4.15.3.2 Concealed Weapon Detection
4.15.3.3 Surveillance and Law Enforcement
4.15.3.4 Medical Imaging

4.15.4 Radio Astronomy

4.15.4.1 Single Dish Telescopes
4.15.4.2 Telescope Arrays
4.15.4.3 Applications

4.16 References

Chapter 5 Active Ranging Sensors

5.1 Overview
5.2 Triangulation
5.3 Pulsed Time-of-Flight Operation

5.3.1 Sensor Requirements
5.3.2 Speed of Propagation
5.3.3 The Antenna
5.3.4 The Transmitter

5.3.4.1 Radar Transmitters
5.3.4.2 Underwater Sonar Transmitters
5.3.4.3 Ultrasonic Transmitters
5.3.4.4 Laser Transmitters

5.3.5 The Receiver

5.4 Pulsed Range Measurement

5.4.1 Timing Discriminators
5.4.2 Pulse Integration
5.4.3 Time Transformation

5.5 Other Methods to Measure Range

5.5.1 Ranging using an Unmodulated Carrier
5.5.2 Ranging using a Modulated Carrier
5.5.3 Tellurometer Example

5.6 The Radar Range Equation

5.6.1 Derivation
5.6.2 The dB Form
5.6.3 Worked Example: Radar Detection Calculation
5.6.4 Receiver Noise
5.6.5 Determining the Required Signal Level
5.6.6 Pulse integration and the probability of detection

5.7 The Acoustic Range Equation

5.7.1 Example of Using the Acoustic Range Equation

5.8 TOF Measurement Considerations
5.9 Range Measurement Radar for a Cruise
5.10 References

Chapter 6 Active Imaging Sensors

6.1 Imaging Techniques
6.2 Range-Gate limited 2D Image Construction
6.3 Beamwidth Limited 3D Image Construction

6.3.1 Push-Broom Scanning
6.3.2 Mechanical Scanning

6.4 The Lidar Range Equation
6.5 Lidar System Performance

6.5.1 Direct Detection

6.5.1.1 Direct Detection Photodiodes

6.5.2 Heterodyne Detection
6.5.3 Signal to Noise Ratio and Detection Probability
6.5.4 Worked Example: Laser Radar Reflection from the Moon

6.6 Digital Terrain Models

6.6.1 Surface Models
6.6.2 Digital Landscapes
6.6.3 Thematic Visualization

6.6.3.1 Geographic Information Systems
6.6.3.2 3D City Models

6.7 Airborne Lidar Hydrography
6.8 3D Imaging

6.8.1 Radar Systems
6.8.2 Focused Beam Radar Imaging
6.8.3 Lidar Imaging
6.8.4 Jigsaw � Foliage Penetrating Lidar

6.9 Acoustic Imaging

6.9.1 Scanning Acoustic Microscopes

6.10 Worked Example: Lidar Locust Tracker

6.10.1 Requirement
6.10.2 Specifications
6.10.3 System Hardware
6.10.4 Determining the Required Aircraft Speed
6.10.5 Laser Power Density on the Ground
6.10.6 The power density of the reflected signals back at the laser
6.10.7 The Effect of the Sun
6.10.8 The Receiver
6.10.9 Conclusions

6.11 References

Chapter 7 Signal Propagation

7.1 The Sensing Environment
7.2 Attenuation of Electromagnetic Waves

7.2.1 Clear Weather Attenuation
7.2.2 Effect of Atmospheric Pressure (air density)
7.2.3 Effect of Rain
7.2.4 Effect of Fog and Clouds
7.2.5 Overall Attenuation
7.2.6 Attenuation through Dust and Smoke

7.2.6.1 Attenuation of Radar Signals
7.2.6.2 Attenuation of Laser Signals

7.2.7 Effect of atmosphere composition
7.2.8 Electromagnetic propagation through solid

7.3 Refraction of Electromagnetic Waves
7.4 Acoustics and Vibration

7.4.1 Characteristic Impedance (Z) and Sound Pressure
7.4.2 Sound Intensity (I)
7.4.3 Sound Propagation in Gases

7.4.3.1 Worked Example: Effect of Molecular Weight on Speed of Sound
7.4.3.2 Effect of Temperature and Pressure

7.4.4 Sound Propagation in Water
7.4.5 Sound Propagation in Solids
7.4.6 Attenuation of Sound in Air

7.5 Attenuation of Sound in Water
7.6 Reflection and Refraction of Sound

7.6.1 Waves normal to the Interface
7.6.2 Waves at an angle to the Interface
7.6.3 Refraction and Refraction

7.7 Multipath Effects

7.7.1 Mechanism
7.7.2 Multipath Lobing
7.7.3 Multipath Fading
7.7.4 Multipath Tracking
7.7.5 Effects on Imaging

7.8 References

Chapter 8 Target and Clutter Characteristics

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Target Cross-Section

8.2.1 Cross-section and the Equivalent Sphere
8.2.2 Cross-section of Real Targets

8.3 Radar Cross-sections (RCS)
8.4 RCS of Simple Shapes

8.4.1 Flat Plate
8.4.2 The Sphere
8.4.3 Trihedral Reflector
8.4.4 Other Simple Calibration Reflectors

8.5 Radar Cross-section of Complex Targets

8.5.1 Aircraft
8.5.2 Ships
8.5.3 Ground Vehicles

8.6 Effect of Target Material
8.7 RCS of Living Creatures

8.7.1 Human Beings
8.7.2 Birds
8.7.3 Insects

8.8 Fluctuations in Radar Cross-section

8.8.1 Temporal Fluctuations
8.8.2 Spatial Distribution of Cross-section

8.9 Radar Stealth

8.9.1 Minimizing Detectability
8.9.2 Anti-Stealth Technology

8.10 Target Cross-section in the Infrared
8.11 Acoustic Target Cross-section

8.11.1 Target Composition
8.11.2 Target Properties
8.11.3 Particulate Targets
8.11.4 Underwater Targets

8.11.4.1 TS of a Sphere
8.11.4.2 TS of Other Shapes

8.12 Clutter

8.12.1 Ground Clutter
8.12.2 Spatial Variations
8.12.3 Temporal Variations
8.12.4 Sea Clutter

8.13 Calculating Surface Clutter Backscatter
8.14 Calculating Volume Backscatter

8.14.1 Rain
8.14.2 Dust and Mist Backscatter

8.15 Sonar Clutter and Reverberation

8.15.1 Backscatter
8.15.2 Volume Reverberation

8.16 Worked Example: Orepass Radar Development

8.16.1 Requirement
8.16.2 Selection of a Sensor
8.16.3 Range Resolution
8.16.4 Target Characteristics
8.16.5 Clutter Characteristics
8.16.6 Target Signal-to-Clutter Ratio (SCR)
8.16.7 Antenna Size and Radar Frequency
8.16.8 Radar Configuration
8.16.9 Component Selection

8.16.9.1 Antenna Options
8.16.9.2 Radar Transmitter
8.16.9.3 Receiver Options

8.16.10 Signal-to-Noise Ratio
8.16.11 Output Signal-to-Noise Ratio
8.16.12 Required IF Gain
8.16.13 Detection Probability and Pulses Integrated
8.16.14 Measurement Update Rate
8.16.15 Monitoring Rock Falling Down the Pass
8.16.16 Prototype Build and Test

8.17 References

Chapter 9 Detection of Signals in Noise

9.1 Receiver Noise

9.1.1 Radar Noise
9.1.2 Noise Probability Density Functions
9.1.3 Infrared Detection and Lidar Noise

9.1.3.1 Thermal Noise
9.1.3.2 Shot Noise
9.1.3.3 Avalanche Noise
9.1.3.4 1/f Noise
9.1.3.5 Total Noise Contribution

9.1.4 Sonar Noise

9.1.4.1 Thermal Noise
9.1.4.2 Noise from the Sea

9.2 Effects of Signal-to-noise Ratio

9.2.1 Probability of False Alarm
9.2.2 Example
9.2.3 Probability of Detection
9.2.4 Detector Loss Relative to an Ideal System

9.3 The Matched Filter
9.4 Coherent Detection
9.5 Integration of Pulse Trains
9.6 Detection of Fluctuating Signals
9.7 Detecting Targets in Clutter
9.8 Constant False Alarm Rate (CFAR) Processors
9.9 Target Detection Analysis

9.9.1 Worked Example: Target Detection with Air Surveillance Radar

9.9.1.1 Determine Receiver Parameters
9.9.1.2 Radar Range Equation
9.9.1.3 Determine the Receiver Noise and SNR
9.9.1.4 Solve for the Detection Range (m)

9.9.2 Range Analysis Software Packages
9.9.3 Detection Range in Rain

9.10 Noise Jamming

9.10.1 Noise Jamming Example

9.11 References

Chapter 10 Doppler Measurement

10.1 The Doppler Shift

10.1.1 Doppler Shift Derivation

10.2 Doppler Geometry

10.2.1 Targets moving at low velocities (v<
10.2.2 Targets Moving at High Speed (v

10.3 Doppler Shift Extraction

10.3.1 Direction Discrimination

10.3.1.1 Sideband Filtering
10.3.1.2 Offset Carrier Demodulation
10.3.1.3 In-phase/Quadrature Demodulation

10.4 Pulsed Doppler
10.5 Doppler Sensors

10.5.1 Continuous Wave Doppler Ultrasound
10.5.2 Continuous Wave Doppler Radar

10.5.2.1 Intruder Detection
10.5.2.2 Sports Radar
10.5.2.3 Police Radar Speed Trap
10.5.2.4 Worked Example: Police Radar and Detector Comparison
10.5.2.5 Projectile Tracking Radar
10.5.2.6 Doppler Target Identification

10.5.3 Pulsed Doppler Ultrasound
10.5.4 Pulsed Doppler Radar

10.6 Doppler Target Generator
10.7 Case Study: Estimating the Speed of Radio Controlled Aircraft

10.7.1 Background
10.7.2 Measured Data

10.8 References

Chapter 11 High Range-Resolution Techniques

11.1 Classical Modulation Techniques
11.2 Amplitude Modulation

11.2.1 Range Resolution

11.3 Frequency & Phase Modulation

11.3.1 Matched Filter

11.4 Phase-Coded Pulse Compression

11.4.1 Barker Codes
11.4.2 Random Codes

11.4.2.1 Optimal Binary Sequences

11.4.3 Correlation

11.4.3.1 Binary Correlation
11.4.3.2 Circular Correlation

11.5 SAW Based Pulse Compression
11.6 Step Frequency
11.7 Frequency-modulated continuous-wave Radar

11.7.1 Operational Principles
11.7.2 Matched Filtering
11.7.3 The Ambiguity Function
11.7.4 Effect of a Non-Linear Chirp
11.7.5 Chirp Linearization

11.7.5.1 Open Loop Techniques
11.7.5.2 Determining the Effectiveness of Linearization Techniques
11.7.5.3 Implementation of Closed-Loop Linearization
11.7.5.4 Direct Digital Synthesis

11.7.6 Extraction of Range Information and Range Gating

11.7.6.1 FFT Processing
11.7.6.2 Other Range Gating Methods

11.7.7 Problems with FMCW

11.8 Stretch
11.9 Interrupted FMCW

11.9.1 Disadvantages
11.9.2 Optimizing for a Long Range Imaging Application
11.9.3 Implementation

11.10 Sidelobes and Weighting for Linear FM Systems
11.11 High Resolution Radar Systems

11.11.1 Industry
11.11.2 Automotive Radar
11.11.3 Research Radars

11.12 Worked Example: Brimstone Antitank Missile

11.12.1 System Specifications
11.12.2 Seeker Specifications (known)
11.12.3 Operational procedure � Lock-on after launch
11.12.4 System Performance (speculated)

11.12.4.1 Target Detection and Identification
11.12.4.2 Radar Front End
11.12.4.3 Antenna and Scanner
11.12.4.4 Signal Processing
11.12.4.5 Signal-to-Clutter Ratio: Clutter Levels
11.12.4.6 Target Levels
11.12.4.7 Signal-to-Clutter Ratio
11.12.4.8 Signal-to-Noise Ratio
11.12.4.9 Target Identification: Doppler Processing
11.12.4.10 Target Identification: Other Techniques

11.12.5 Tracking and Guidance

11.13 References

Chapter 12 High Angular-Resolution Techniques

12.1 Introduction
12.2 Phased Arrays

12.2.1 Advantages of using Phased Arrays
12.2.2 Array Synthesis
12.2.3 Two Point Array
12.2.4 4 Point Array
12.2.5 The General Case

12.3 The Radiation Pattern

12.3.1 Linear Array
12.3.2 Radiation pattern: 2D Rectangular Array

12.4 Beam Steering

12.4.1 Active and Passive Arrays
12.4.2 Corrections to Improve Range Resolution

12.5 Array Characteristics

12.5.1 Antenna Gain and Beamwidth
12.5.2 Matching and Mutual Coupling
12.5.3 Thinned arrays
12.5.4 Conformal Arrays

12.6 Applications

12.6.1 Acoustic Array
12.6.2 New Generation MMIC Phased Arrays
12.6.3 Early Warning Phased Array Radar

12.7 Sidescan Sonar

12.7.1 Operational Principles
12.7.2 Hardware
12.7.3 Operation and Image Interpretation
12.7.4 Signal Processing

12.8 Worked Example: Performance of the ICT-5202 Transducer
12.9 Doppler Beam-Sharpening
12.10 Operational Principles of Synthetic Aperture
12.11 Range and Cross-range Resolution

12.11.1 Unfocussed SAR
12.11.2 Focused SAR
12.11.3 Resolution Comparison

12.12 Worked Example: Synthetic Aperture Sonar
12.13 Radar Image Quality Issues

12.13.1 Perspective of a Radar Image
12.13.2 Image Distortion

12.13.2.1 Stretching
12.13.2.2 Shadowing

12.13.3 Speckle

12.14 SAR on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

12.14.1 TESAR
12.14.2 MiniSAR

12.15 Airborne SAR Capability
12.16 Space-based SAR

12.16.1 Interferometry

12.17 Magellan Mission to Venus
12.18 References

Chapter 13 Range and Angle Estimation and Tracking

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Range Estimation and Tracking

13.2.1 Range Gating

13.3 Principles of a Split-Gate Tracker

13.3.1 Range Transfer Function
13.3.2 Noise on Split-Gate Trackers

13.4 Range Tracking Loop Implementation

13.4.1 The a-� Filter
13.4.2 The Kalman Filter
13.4.3 Other Tracking Filters

13.5 Ultrasonic Range Tracker Example
13.6 Tracking Noise after Filtering
13.7 Tracking Lag for an Accelerating Target
13.8 Worked Example: Range Tracker Bandwidth Optimization
13.9 Range Tracking Systems

13.9.1 Lidar Speed Trap

13.10 Seduction Jamming
13.11 Angle Measurement

13.11.1 Amplitude Thresholding
13.11.2 Proximity Detector Example

13.12 Angle Tracking Principles

13.12.1 Scanning Across the Target
13.12.2 Null Steering

13.13 Lobe Switching (Sequential Lobing)

13.13.1 Main Disadvantages of Lobe Switching

13.14 Conical Scan

13.14.1 The Squint Angle Optimization Process
13.14.2 Measuring the Conscan Antenna Transfer Function
13.14.3 Application
13.14.4 Main Disadvantages
13.14.5 Other considerations

13.15 Infrared Target Trackers
13.16 Amplitude Comparison Monopulse

13.16.1 Antenna Patterns
13.16.2 Generation of Error Signals

13.17 Comparison between Conscan and Monopulse
13.18 Angle Tracking Loops
13.19 Angle Estimation and Tracking Applications

13.19.1 Instrument Landing System (ILS)

13.19.1.1 Localizer Transmitter
13.19.1.2 Localizer Receiver
13.19.1.3 Glide Slope Equipment

13.20 Worked Example: Combined Acoustic and Infrared Tracker
13.20.1 Operational Principles of Prototype
13.20.2 Theoretical Performance
13.20.3 Tracker Implementation

13.20.3.1 Beacon
13.20.3.2 Receiver

13.20.4 Construction
13.20.5 Control Algorithms

13.21 Angle Track Jamming
13.22 Triangulation

13.22.1 Loran-C

13.22.1.1 Summary of Operation
13.22.1.2 Measurement Process
13.22.1.3 Advantages of Loran-C

13.23 References

Chapter 14 Tracking Moving Targets

14.1 Track While Scan
14.2 The Coherent Pulsed Tracking Radar

14.2.1 Single Channel Detection
14.2.2 I/Q Detection
14.2.3 Moving Target Indicator (MTI)

14.2.3.1 Blind Speeds
14.2.3.2 Staggered PRF and Blind Speed

14.3 Limitations to MTI Performance
14.4 Range-Gated Pulsed Doppler Tracking
14.5 Co-ordinate Frames

14.5.1 Measurement Frame
14.5.2 Tracking and Estimation Frame

14.6 Antenna Mounts and Servo Systems
14.7 On-Axis Tracking

14.7.1 Crossing Targets and Apparent Acceleration
14.7.2 Millimeter Wave Tracking Radar

14.8 Tracking in Cartesian Space
14.9 Worked Example: Fire Control Radar

14.9.1 Requirements
14.9.2 Selection of Polarization
14.9.3 Positioner Specifications
14.9.4 Radar Horizon
14.9.5 Selection of Frequency
14.9.6 Adverse Weather Effects
14.9.7 Required Single Pulse Signal-to-Noise Ratio
14.9.8 Tracking Gate Size
14.9.9 Signal-to-Clutter
14.9.10 Moving Target Indicator
14.9.11 The Pulse Repetition Frequency
14.9.12 Search Requirement
14.9.13 Integration Gain
14.9.14 Matched Filter
14.9.15 Transmitter Power
14.9.16 System Configuration
14.9.17 Free Space Detection Range
14.9.18 Effects of Multipath on Aircraft Detection
14.9.19 Detection Threshold and CFAR
14.9.20 Transition to Track
14.9.21 Target Tracking

14.10 References

Chapter 15 RFID Tags and Transponders

15.1 Principle of Operation
15.2 History
15.3 Secondary Surveillance Radar

15.3.1 Interrogation Equipment
15.3.2 Transponder Equipment
15.3.3 Operation
15.3.4 SSR Issues

15.3.4.1 Sidelobe problems
15.3.4.2 Congestion

15.4 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Systems

15.4.1 Electronic Article Surveillance (EAS)

15.4.1.1 Radio Frequency Tags
15.4.1.2 Acousto-Magnetic Tags
15.4.1.3 Microwave Tags (E-tags)

15.4.2 Multibit EAS Tags
15.4.3 Magnetic Coupled RFID Transponder Systems

15.4.3.1 Operational Principles
15.4.4 Electromagnetic Coupled RFID Transponder Systems

15.5 Other Applications

15.5.1 House Arrest Tag

15.6 Social Issues
15.7 Technical Challenges
15.8 Harmonic Radar
15.9 Battlefield Combat ID System (BCIS)

15.9.1 Combat Identification: The Future

15.10 References

Chapter 16 Tomography and 3D Imaging

16.1 Principle of Operation
16.2 CT Imaging

16.2.1 Image Reconstruction
16.2.2 What is displayed in CT images
16.2.3 Two Dimensional Displays
16.2.4 Three Dimensional Displays

16.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

16.3.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
16.3.2 Imaging Process
16.3.3 Imaging Resolution

16.4 MRI Images
16.5 Functional MRI Investigations of Brain Function
16.6 Positron Emission Tomography

16.6.1 Examples of the use of PET Scans

16.7 3D Ultrasound Imaging

16.7.1 2D Medical Ultrasound

16.7.1.1 Medical Applications
16.7.1.2 Dangers of Ultrasound Use

16.8 3D Extension

16.8.1 Ultrasonic Computed Tomography

16.9 3D Sonar Imaging
16.10 Ground Penetrating Radar

16.10.1 3D Imaging using GPR

16.11 Worked Example: Detecting a Ruby Nodule in a Rock Matrix
16.12 References

About the Author

Graham Michael Brooker

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